National Continental Congress Exhibit

The 2012 Continental Congress Festival Presents

America's Four Republics: The More or Less United States

By: Stanley Yavneh Klos

Edited by: Naomi Yavneh Klos, Ph. D.

High School Curriculum Sample 

The Four United American Republics

First United American Republic: United Colonies of North America: Established by 12 colonies on September 5, 1774 (with Georgia joining in 1775), this republic was governed through the British Colonial Continental Congress. Peyton Randolph served as the Republic's first President, while George Washington held the position of Commander-in-Chief.

Second United American Republic: The United States of America: Founded by 12 states on July 2, 1776 (New York abstained until July 8), this republic marked the colonies’ transition to independence and was governed through the United States Continental Congress. John Hancock served as the first President, and George Washington continued as Commander-in-Chief.

Third United American Republic: The United States of America – A Perpetual Union: Formed by 13 states on March 1, 1781, with the ratification of the first U.S. Constitution, the Articles of Confederation, this republic operated under the United States in Congress Assembled. Samuel Huntington was its first President, with George Washington serving as Commander-in-Chief.

Fourth United American Republic: The United States of America – We the People: Established by 11 states on March 4, 1789 (North Carolina and Rhode Island joined later, in November 1789 and May 1790, respectively), this republic emerged with the enactment of the 1787 U.S. Constitution. It introduced a government system that includes the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate in Congress Assembled, the President and Commander-in-Chief, and the Supreme Court. George Washington served as the first President of this enduring republic, with his role as Commander-in-Chief continuing.

For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here]. 

Governor Calvert House across from the Maryland State House

The America’s Four Republics: The More or Less United States exhibit was held at the Governor Calvert House, located at 58 State Circle in Annapolis, MD, from November 26–28, 2012. The exhibit was free and open to the public, with operating hours from 9:00 am to 9:00 pm on Monday and Tuesday, and 9:00 am to 5:00 pm on Wednesday.

The exhibit aimed to support the Annapolis Continental Congress Society in its initiative to establish a National Continental Congress Center in Annapolis, highlighting the city’s historical significance in America’s journey toward independence and its evolving governance.

Maryland Capital News Service Report

Welcome to America’s Four Republics: The More or Less United States online exhibit, a non-partisan exploration of the United States’ 15-year political evolution. This exhibit highlights 18th- and early 19th-century primary sources from each of the Four United Republics: the United Colonies of America (1774–1776), formed under the First Continental Congress; the United States of America (1776–1781), established with the Declaration of Independence; the United States of America: A Not Quite Perpetual Union (1781–1789), created under the Articles of Confederation; and the enduring United States of America: We the People (1789–Present), governed by the U.S. Constitution.

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America's Four United Republics

The First United Republic: United Colonies of America

Oil Paintings of Presidents Peyton Randolph and Henry Middleton

Thirteen British Colonies United in a Continental Congress

The United Colonies of America (September 5, 1774 – July 1, 1776) was established by 12 British colonies under the First Continental Congress and concluded with the Second Continental Congress. Visitors are greeted by an oil painting gallery featuring King George III and Queen Charlotte. This section showcases 18th-century letters and manuscripts from United Colonies Continental Congress Presidents Peyton Randolph, Henry Middleton, and John Hancock.

[King George III] Marriage Declaration of July 8, 1761

This historic declaration, issued by King George III on July 8, 1761, announces his decision to marry Princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. In this official proclamation, the King reflects on his responsibilities as monarch, stating, "I have, ever since my accession to the throne, turned my thoughts towards the choice of a princess for my consort." He describes his selection of Princess Charlotte as being based on her exemplary virtues, characterizing her as a woman distinguished by "every eminent virtue."

The marriage was a pivotal moment in British royal history, solidifying a union that would see Princess Charlotte become Queen Consort of Great Britain and Ireland. Their partnership was marked by mutual respect and was instrumental in shaping the image of the monarchy during a period of political and cultural change.

This document, originally published in The London Magazine or Gentleman’s Monthly Intelligencer (July 1761, R. Baldwin, London), provides valuable insight into the personal and political considerations of one of Britain’s longest-reigning monarchs. It is part of the Historic.us Collection, offering a tangible connection to a significant event in British and global history.

Exhibited: Peyton Randolph and the Virginia Five Pound Colonial Note (March 4, 1773)

This rare document, a March 4, 1773 Virginia Five Pound Colonial Note, bears the signature of Peyton Randolph, the first President of the Colonial Continental Congress. As a pivotal figure in the American Revolution, Randolph played a key role in uniting the colonies against British rule and establishing the foundation of American governance. His signature on this note highlights his broader contributions to colonial leadership and economic affairs.

The note, issued as legal tender in Virginia, also features the signature of John Blair, a future signer of the U.S. Constitution of 1787 and an associate justice of the first U.S. Supreme Court. Blair’s presence on this document underscores the interconnected roles of many Founding Fathers, who shaped not only the economic framework of the colonies but also the legal and political structure of the emerging United States.

Colonial currency like this five-pound note played a crucial role in the colonial economy, representing the financial autonomy the colonies sought amidst growing tensions with Britain. The signatures of Randolph and Blair elevate this artifact to a unique symbol of early American leadership and the collaborative efforts that would ultimately lead to independence and the formation of the United States.

This remarkable piece serves as both a historical document and a testament to the leadership of two influential figures in American history. It connects the financial instruments of the colonial era with the broader narrative of the Revolution and the establishment of the U.S. Constitution.  - Loan Courtesy of Louis and Jenna Klos

Exhibited: Articles of Association -A Rare Colonial Printing

On display is a rare 1774 colonial printing of the Articles of Association, which formally referred to the 1774 Convention of Delegates as the "Continental Congress." This historic document is excerpted from the publication titled: “Extracts From The Votes And Proceedings Of The American Continental Congress, Held At Philadelphia, On The 5th Of September, 1774: Containing The Bill Of Rights, A List Of Grievances, Occasional Resolves, The Association, An Address To The People Of Great-Britain, And A Memorial To The Inhabitants Of The British American Colonies, Published By Order Of The Congress.”

Printed in Philadelphia in 1774, this document captures the pivotal moment when the colonies united to address their collective grievances against British rule. The Articles of Association established a framework for collective colonial resistance, including a boycott of British goods, and laid the groundwork for the revolutionary actions that would follow. This printing represents a foundational step in the journey toward American independence, embodying the resolve and unity of the First Continental Congress.

Exhibited: Benjamin Franklin’s Proposed Plan of Government: A Rare and Significant Manuscript

On exhibit is Benjamin Franklin’s Proposed Plan of Government, an exceptionally rare eight-page manuscript entitled: “Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union entered into by the Delegates of the several Colonies … in General Congress met at Philadelphia, May 10, 1775.” This document, dated July 21, 1775, represents one of the earliest conceptual frameworks for a united colonial government, authored by one of America’s most influential Founding Fathers.

Franklin’s proposed Articles of Confederation were groundbreaking, offering a vision of unity among the colonies during a period of increasing tension with Great Britain. This plan outlined a confederated structure in which the colonies would retain their individual sovereignty while cooperating on matters of common interest, such as defense and trade. Franklin’s forward-thinking proposal prefigured the later Articles of Confederation enacted in 1781, as well as the U.S. Constitution of 1787, and demonstrates his pivotal role in shaping the political evolution of the United States.

This manuscript, considered one of the most significant documents of the United Colonial Congress, captures the early ideological foundations of American governance. It reflects Franklin’s wisdom and pragmatism as he sought to balance colonial autonomy with the need for collective strength and coordination.

Loan Courtesy of Seth Kaller,  this document offers a rare glimpse into the bold and visionary ideas that laid the groundwork for American independence and the eventual creation of a unified nation.

Exhibited: John Hancock and the March 23, 1776 “Privateering Act”

On display is the historic Privateering Act, signed by John Hancock on March 23, 1776. This pivotal resolution, enacted by the United Colonies of America, authorized privateers to disrupt British shipping during the Revolutionary War. It empowered American vessels to act as private armed ships, granting them the authority to, “by Force of Arms, attack, subdue, and take all Ships and other Vessels belonging to the Inhabitants of Great-Britain, on the High Seas...”

As President of the Continental Congress, John Hancock’s signature on this resolution underscored his leadership during a critical phase of the American Revolution. The act represented a bold move by the colonies to weaken Britain’s naval dominance, cripple its supply chains, and assert colonial resistance on the high seas. Privateering became an essential component of the American war effort, with private ships capturing British vessels and redirecting valuable goods to the colonial cause.

The Privateering Act also highlighted the colonies' ingenuity in utilizing unconventional methods to counter British military power. By authorizing private citizens to participate in warfare, it blurred the lines between civilian and military efforts, reflecting the determination and resourcefulness of the United Colonies in their fight for independence.

This rare and significant document provides a tangible connection to the strategies and decisions that shaped the Revolutionary War. It serves as a testament to the resolve of the Continental Congress and its willingness to challenge Britain’s might on every front.

The Second United Republic: United States of America

Oil Paintings of Presidents John Hancock, Henry Laurens, John Jay and Samuel Huntington

Thirteen Independent States United in Congress

Second United American Republic: The United States of America

The Second United American Republic, known as The United States of America: Thirteen Independent States United in Congress, existed from July 2, 1776, to February 28, 1781. It was established by 12 states under the Second Continental Congress and concluded with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation. This era saw the adoption of Richard Henry Lee’s Resolution for Independence, followed by the issuance of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776. An original imprint of the Declaration is a centerpiece of this exhibit, surrounded by rare letters and documents from numerous Declaration signers, including the complete delegation from Maryland.

The exhibit also features an oil painting gallery accompanied by documents from three additional Presidents of the Continental Congress: John Hancock, Henry Laurens, and John Jay. These items capture the leadership and decision-making that defined the republic during its formative years.

Exhibited: Resolution of Independence - A Defining Moment in American History

On display are two historic publications of the Resolution of Independence, a transformative decision by the Continental Congress that declared the colonies free from British rule. Featured items include the American Archives Force printing and the Pennsylvania Magazine’s June pamphlet, edited by Thomas Paine. Due to a paper shortage, the June issue’s publication was delayed, allowing time for the insertion of the July 2, 1776 resolution. This pivotal document marked the official end of the United Colonies of America Republic and the birth of the Second American Republic: the United States of America, 13 Independent States united in Congress.

The passage of the resolution set the stage for the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, but it was the vote on July 2, 1776, that formally severed ties with Great Britain. Reflecting the significance of the moment, John Adams wrote to Abigail Adams on July 3, 1776, proclaiming, “The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America ... It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires, and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more.”

These publications provide an authentic glimpse into the momentous decision that redefined America’s political landscape, ushering in a new era of independence and unity among the states.

Exhibited: Abigail Smith Adams - A Founding Mother and Advocate for Women’s Rights

[Abigail Smith Adams] (1744–1818) stands as one of the most prominent "Founding Mothers," celebrated for her candid and insightful correspondence with her husband, John Adams, during their frequent and lengthy separations throughout the Revolutionary War and beyond. While John debated in Congress, Abigail managed their farm, ensuring its profitability to support his work, while also educating and raising their children. Amidst these responsibilities, she endured personal hardships, including the stillbirth of a daughter during one of John’s brief visits home. Later, she joined her husband in Europe, traveling to France and then to England when he became the first U.S. Minister to the Court of Great Britain. Abigail continued to serve her nation as the wife of the Vice President and later as First Lady during John Adams’s presidency, which ended after his fiercely contested loss to Thomas Jefferson in 1800.

Steel Engraving of Abigail Smith Adams from Rufus Wilmot Griswold
The Republican Court; or American Society in the Days of Washington,  1854

A vocal supporter of independence, Abigail also shared her thoughts on the structure of the new government. However, she is perhaps best remembered for her progressive views on women’s rights, particularly concerning property and education. Abigail believed that women should not passively accept laws that ignored their interests, nor should they be relegated to the limited role of mere companions to their husbands. Instead, she championed education for women, arguing that intellectual empowerment was essential for them to guide and influence their families and society.

Her famous letter to John Adams in March 1776 epitomizes her bold stance. Writing during the early days of the Revolution, she urged her husband and the Continental Congress to “Remember the ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation.”

Part of the Historic.us Collection, Abigail Adams’s legacy lives on through her words, which continue to inspire conversations about equality, representation, and the role of women in shaping the nation.

Exhibited: Declaration of Independence, William J. Stone Copperplate Engraving

This exhibit features a copperplate engraving of the Declaration of Independence, printed on thin wove paper and measuring 26” x 30”. The imprint at the bottom left reads, “W. J. STONE SC WASHn”, indicating its origin as part of the Peter Force edition of the Declaration, created in Washington, D.C., circa 1833.

By 1820, the original Declaration of Independence—now preserved at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.—had already suffered significant wear from handling. To safeguard its content for posterity, John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State, commissioned William J. Stone to create an exact copperplate facsimile. Debate continues over whether Stone employed a “wet” or chemical process to directly trace the original manuscript, ensuring the precision of his engraving.

In 1823, Congress ordered 200 official copies printed on vellum from Stone’s plate. Today, fewer than 40 of these vellum copies are known to exist, with at least 21 held by institutions and public collections. All subsequent facsimiles of the Declaration derive from Stone’s copperplate.

The original first-edition vellum prints bear Stone’s full imprint at the top, stating: “ENGRAVED by W.J. STONE for the Dept. of State by order of J. Q. Adams, Sec of State July 4, 1823.” For later editions, including the Force printing displayed here, this imprint was removed and replaced with a shorter version at the bottom left: “W. J. STONE SC WASHn”, found just below George Walton’s signature.

This Force printing, the second edition of Stone’s exact facsimile, remains one of the most faithful representations of the Declaration as it appeared over 150 years ago, before the near-complete deterioration of the original manuscript. Today, the original is largely illegible, making this engraving an invaluable preservation of the nation’s founding document.

Exhibited: Gentleman’s Magazine (1776): A Rare and Comprehensive Chronicle of the American Revolution

The Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle (London: D. Henry, 1776) is a highly collectible volume encompassing all 12 issues from 1776, including its supplement, bound together in one book. Despite wear to the covers, some damage to the spine, and occasional foxing, the volume remains complete and in good condition. This first edition is particularly significant for its early British printing of the Declaration of Independence in the August issue (page 361) and its detailed coverage of the American Revolution.

Key features include eight folding maps, four of which document key American Revolutionary War sites: A Map of the Country round Philadelphia (page 396), Sketch of the Country Illustrating the late Engagement in Long Island (page 452), Map of Connecticut and Rhode Island (page 524), and Map of the Progress of His Majesty’s Armies in New York (page 606). These maps were especially prized in Britain, providing critical geographic insights at a time when England's forces were engaged in overseas combat.

The volume also includes four full-page engraved illustrations, numerous in-text engravings, and three additional folding maps of the South Pole, Eastern and Western Hemispheres, and Captain Cook’s 1774 tropical discoveries. A rare 16th-century Latin map of Cambridge (page 200) and various other plates enhance the collection's value.

Beyond the maps and illustrations, the magazine offers an in-depth view of the Revolution through Parliamentary debates, selected correspondence from George Washington, resolutions of the Continental Congress, and other reports on the unfolding conflict. The combination of maps, illustrations, and first-hand accounts makes this volume a rich historical resource and a vivid reflection of Britain’s concerns and strategic interests during a pivotal year in American history.

Exhibited: William Paca Autographed Letter Signed

This exhibit features an autographed letter signed by William Paca, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and a prominent figure in the American Revolution. In the letter, Paca writes:

"We shall be obliged to you to procure and deliver to Captain John Lynn two pairs of shoes and eleven shirts from detachment of the Continental line to the west River for the protection of the State Ship. With Great Respect, Honorable Sir, Your Most Humble and obedient servant, William Paca."

This letter exemplifies Paca’s active role in coordinating logistical efforts to support the Revolutionary War. It highlights his attention to the practical needs of the Continental forces tasked with protecting vital state resources.

Loan Courtesy of Michael J. Sullivan of Mt. Victoria.

Exhibited: Blank Military Commission Signed by Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson

On display is a rare blank military commission signed by Henry Laurens, President of the Second United States Continental Congress, and Charles Thomson, Secretary of the Congress. These blank commissions were commonly supplied to generals for issuing military field promotions during the Revolutionary War.

Such documents highlight the Continental Congress's efforts to empower military leaders with the flexibility to recognize and reward soldiers in the heat of battle, ensuring the army’s structure could adapt to the dynamic demands of war. The signatures of Laurens and Thomson, both pivotal figures in the Revolutionary era, further underscore the historical significance of this commission.

From the Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: Queen Charlotte Sophia: Revolutionary War Era Autograph Letter Signed (February 19, 1779)

This exhibit features a rare autograph letter signed by Queen Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, consort of King George III, written to her brother in French on February 19, 1779, during the Revolutionary War. In the letter, Queen Charlotte expresses heartfelt congratulations on the birth of a princess:

"Sir, my brother, it is with great pleasure that I congratulate Your Majesty on the birth of the Princess, whom your very lovely wife has, with the assistance of Divine Providence, brought into the world. I share with Your Majesty the joy that this event brings and humbly pray to the Almighty to continue blessing the royal house with all manner of benedictions. With my perfect sincerity, Sir my brother, your good sister, Charlotte. At St. James, February 19, 1779."

Queen Charlotte (1744–1818), born in Mecklenburg-Strelitz, married George III shortly after his accession to the throne in 1761. Despite initial doubts about her appearance when she first met George at St. James’s Palace, she quickly won his affection with her piety, modesty, and devotion. Over 21 years, she gave birth to 15 children, including their eldest son, the future George IV, born in 1762.

In contrast to the often fraught marriages of European royalty, George III and Queen Charlotte enjoyed a harmonious relationship. As queen, Charlotte maintained a prominent yet reserved role in European politics, witnessing firsthand the upheaval of her era, including the American Revolution. Her life and correspondence provide an intimate perspective on the challenges faced by the British monarchy during one of history’s most turbulent periods.

Exhibited: John Jay’s Presidential Letter to Governor Patrick Henry (May 28, 1779)

On display is an important letter from John Jay, serving as President of the Continental Congress, addressed to Virginia Governor Patrick Henry. Written on May 28, 1779, the letter transmits the “Address of Congress to the Inhabitants of the United States.” This document was a plea to the American people to remain steadfast in their support of the revolutionary cause during a time of severe economic and political challenges.

In the letter, Jay urges citizens to resist despair and reject rumors undermining confidence in the new government, which was grappling with the collapse of the U.S. Continental Dollar. The hyperinflation of the currency, combined with the hardships of war, fueled doubt about the viability of the Continental Congress and its ability to lead the fledgling nation. Jay’s correspondence reflects the precarious state of the Revolution in 1779 and the vital role of strong leadership in preserving public morale and unity.

As President of the Continental Congress, John Jay was instrumental in articulating and defending the ideals of independence. This letter illustrates his commitment to rallying the American people, maintaining their trust in the revolutionary government, and countering the destabilizing effects of economic turmoil and misinformation.

Loan Courtesy of Forgotten Founders, CT, this document offers a vivid snapshot of the challenges faced by the Continental Congress and the resilience required to sustain the revolutionary effort. It highlights Jay’s leadership in guiding the nation through one of its most difficult chapters, underscoring his enduring legacy as a Founding Father.

Exhibited: Samuel Huntington Autograph Letter Signed (July 23, 1780)

On display is a rare autograph letter signed by Samuel Huntington, written during his tenure as President of the Continental Congress on July 23, 1780, from Philadelphia. Addressed to Jeremiah Wadsworth, a prominent merchant and patriot from Connecticut, the letter reflects Huntington’s efforts to resolve pressing financial matters during the Revolutionary War.

In the letter, Huntington acknowledges Wadsworth’s concerns and assures him that he will encourage Connecticut’s delegates in Congress to, “use their endeavors to have one or more commissioners immediately sent into Connecticut...to settle your accounts.” This correspondence illustrates Huntington’s role in managing the financial and logistical challenges of sustaining the revolutionary effort, particularly in ensuring that resources and reimbursements for vital services were handled effectively.

Huntington, a respected statesman from Connecticut, was a signer of the Declaration of Independence and played a pivotal role as President of the Continental Congress. During his presidency, he oversaw critical decisions, including the ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1781, which formally established the United States as a unified, albeit fragile, confederation. Letters like this highlight the practical challenges of governance during the Revolution, where financial stability and proper accounting were as crucial as battlefield victories.

Loan Courtesy of Forgotten Founders, this document provides a glimpse into the administrative complexities faced by the Continental Congress and the essential leadership of figures like Samuel Huntington in addressing them. It serves as a testament to the commitment of the nation’s Founders to maintaining the revolutionary cause amid immense adversity.

Exhibited: Continental Currency, Spanish Milled Dollar, and the 1780 Congressional Resolution

On display are historic examples of $5 and $50 Continental Currency, a 1783 Spanish Milled Silver Dollar, and the 1780 Journals of Congress, opened to the pivotal resolution that redefined the value of the U.S. Dollar. The resolution, passed during the Revolutionary War, adjusted the exchange rate for U.S. dollars, mandating that 40 Continental Dollars were required to redeem a single Spanish Silver Dollar from the U.S. Treasury.

 

This financial decision drastically reduced the U.S. national debt from 200 million to 5 million Spanish Silver Dollars, commonly referred to as “Pieces of Eight.” The resolution was a response to rampant inflation and the collapse of Continental Currency, caused by overprinting and a lack of backing assets. The adoption of the Spanish Silver Dollar as a benchmark reflected its widespread acceptance and reliability in international trade, underscoring the young nation’s reliance on this global currency standard to stabilize its economy.

Continental Currency, issued by the Continental Congress to finance the war effort, symbolizes both the ingenuity and the challenges faced by the revolutionary government. The depreciation of this currency revealed the need for a more stable and centralized financial system, a lesson that informed later financial reforms under the U.S. Constitution.

Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collections, this exhibit offers a tangible connection to the economic struggles and strategic decisions that shaped the financial foundation of the United States during its fight for independence.

Exhibited: Revolutionary War-Dated Military Appointment Signed by Samuel Huntington (June 29, 1780)

On display is a Revolutionary War-dated military appointment signed by Samuel Huntington, President of the Continental Congress, for Hodijah Baylies, a future aide to George Washington. Dated June 29, 1780, this partly printed document, measuring 10.25 x 5.5 inches, appoints Baylies as a "Major in the Army of the United States." Huntington’s bold signature, “Sam’l Huntington President,” appears at the conclusion, alongside the countersignature of Benjamin Stoddert, Secretary of the Board of War.

The vellum document retains its original white paper seal at the upper left and is handsomely framed with a portrait of Huntington and a biographical caption, bringing its overall display dimensions to 18.75 x 29.25 inches. Despite light wrinkling, soiling, and some fading of the handwritten text, the artifact remains in very good to fine condition, preserving its historical significance.

Hodijah Baylies (1756–1842), the appointee, served with distinction during the Revolutionary War. He was the son-in-law and former aide-de-camp of General Benjamin Lincoln before becoming George Washington’s last aide-de-camp from May 1782 until Washington’s resignation in December 1783. This appointment, marking a significant milestone in Baylies’s military career, reflects the critical role of the Continental Army’s leadership in securing American independence.

Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collections, this artifact provides a rare and tangible connection to the Continental Congress’s role in the Revolutionary War and the leadership of individuals like Huntington, who played an instrumental part in shaping the United States during its fight for freedom.

The Third United Republic: United States of America

Oil Paintings of Presidents Thomas McKean, John Hanson, and Elias Boudinot

Oil Paintings of Presidents Thomas Mifflin, Richard Henry Lee, Nathaniel Gorham, and Arthur St. Clair

A Not Quite Perpetual Union

The Third United American Republic, known as The United States of America: A Not Quite Perpetual Union, spanned from March 1, 1781, to March 3, 1789. It was established by 13 states with the enactment of the Articles of Confederation, the nation’s first constitution, and concluded with the ratification of the U.S. Constitution of 1787, which created a stronger federal government.

This era is highlighted by the Treaty of Paris Proclamation, marking the formal end of the Revolutionary War and recognition of American independence. Above the exhibit, a Presidential oil painting gallery features portraits of the ten Presidents who served under the Articles of Confederation, each contributing to the governance of the fledgling nation during a critical period of transition.

The display includes letters and manuscripts from these Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA):

• Samuel Huntington
• Thomas McKean
• John Hanson
• Elias Boudinot
• Thomas Mifflin
• Richard Henry Lee
• John Hancock
• Nathaniel Gorham
• Arthur St. Clair
• Cyrus Griffin

This collection provides a window into the challenges and achievements of the USCA as it navigated issues of diplomacy, economic instability, and governance under the limited framework of the Articles of Confederation. The Third Republic remains a testament to the resilience and innovation of the early American leaders who laid the groundwork for the constitutional government that followed.

Exhibited: The First Session of the Articles of Confederation Congress

As documented in the Journals of the United States in Congress Assembled, which were "published by order of Congress," the record opens to March 2, 1781. This pivotal entry marks the formal adoption of the Articles of Confederation, the first framework of government for the United States, officially recognizing it as the nation's initial Constitution. 

It also commemorates the first convening of the United States in Congress Assembled, a historic moment that solidified the union of the states under a central authority. Samuel Huntington, a distinguished statesman, is recorded as the first President to preside under the Constitution of 1777, guiding the fledgling nation in its early governance. – Loan Courtesy of Historic.us

Exhibited: A Military Commission Signed by President Thomas McKean

On display is a historic military commission dated July 20, 1781, issued in Philadelphia during the Revolutionary War. This document formally appoints Alexander Murray as a Lieutenant in the Continental Army. It bears the signature of Thomas McKean, serving as the second President of the United States in Congress Assembled under the Articles of Confederation. McKean’s presidency was pivotal during this critical juncture of the American Revolution, as the nation sought to solidify its leadership and military structure.

Accompanying McKean's signature is that of Joseph Carleton, acting as Secretary of the Board of War, underscoring the collaborative efforts of civilian and military leadership to sustain the Continental Army's operations. This commission exemplifies the essential role of the Congress Assembled in organizing and empowering the military forces that would secure American independence. – Courtesy of the Historic.us Collection

Exhibited: A Military Commission Signed by President John Hanson

On display is a rare and significant military commission signed by John Hanson, the third President of the United States in Congress Assembled under the Articles of Confederation. This historic document is further authenticated by the signature of Charles Thomson, the esteemed Secretary of the United States in Congress Assembled, whose meticulous record-keeping and unwavering service were vital to the early governance of the fledgling nation.

Hanson's presidency, beginning in November 1781, marked a critical phase in the establishment of the United States' government under the Articles of Confederation. During his term, Hanson oversaw key measures aimed at stabilizing the post-Revolutionary War nation, including efforts to formalize the military structure and maintain unity among the states. The military commission exemplifies this pivotal era, reflecting the authority of Congress Assembled in appointing and empowering officers to serve in the Continental Army. – Loan Courtesy of Rick Badwey, Museum Framing

Exhibited: John Hanson’s October 16th, 1782 Thanksgiving Proclamation

On display is a historic October 16th, 1782 proclamation issued under the leadership of John Hanson, serving as President of the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA). This significant document calls for a Public Thanksgiving to God, prompted by the favorable developments in peace negotiations with Great Britain. The proclamation reflects the spirit of gratitude and reliance on divine providence that shaped the early ethos of the new nation.

In Hanson’s proclamation, the day is designated as one of "Humiliation, Fasting, and Prayer," underscoring the profound belief that it is the “indispensable duty of all nations” to not only seek God’s assistance in times of distress but also to publicly and solemnly offer thanks for His blessings. The document eloquently acknowledges "great and signal interpositions of His Providence," expressing gratitude for the signs of peace and progress amid the Revolutionary War's final stages.

This extraordinary artifact captures a moment of national hope and unity, emphasizing the foundational role of faith and thanksgiving in American public life during the struggle for independence. – Loan Courtesy of Forgotten Founders CT.

Exhibited: George Washington’s August 15th, 1782 Autographed Letter

On display is an extraordinary autographed letter signed by George Washington, penned in his role as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. Addressed to James McHenry, this letter offers a rare and personal glimpse into Washington's character, revealing the thoughtful and strategic mind behind his steadfast public image. Written after the pivotal victory at Yorktown, the correspondence comes during a period of heightened anticipation as Americans awaited the final peace treaty from Paris that would formally end the Revolutionary War.

Dr. Naomi Yavneh Klos discussing the importance of the George Washington letter to James McHenry. 

In this letter, Washington carefully balances a tone of friendship and measured discretion while addressing critical matters of national importance. Beneath the letter’s cordial phrasing lies a serious discussion about funding and maintaining troop levels, a crucial step to ensure the Continental Army remained a credible deterrent against any further actions by British forces under General Sir Henry Clinton, who still occupied New York City.

This document highlights Washington's dual role as a military leader and statesman, navigating the complexities of securing both immediate military needs and long-term national stability. It reflects the ongoing vigilance and calculated diplomacy required to steer the young nation through its uncertain and fragile early years. – Loan Courtesy of Seth Kaller.

Exhibited: First Lady Martha Washington’s Signature

On display is a rare and valuable signature of First Lady Martha Washington, clipped from an autograph letter signed (ALS) and bearing the elegant inscription “M Washington.” On the reverse side, the fragment reads, “this place haves the,” offering a tantalizing glimpse into what may have been a letter of historical significance.

This artifact serves as a poignant reminder of 19th-century collecting practices, when autograph enthusiasts often clipped signatures from important documents and correspondence to add to their collections. While this practice preserved the signatures of notable figures, it frequently resulted in the loss of valuable historical context and content. One can only speculate about the letter’s original date, recipient, and purpose, imagining the insight it might have provided into the life and thoughts of Martha Washington, a figure of enduring importance in American history.

As the nation’s first First Lady, Martha Washington played a crucial role in shaping the social and political fabric of the early republic. Her letters, though fewer in number than those of her famous husband, offer a unique perspective on the personal and political challenges of the Revolutionary War and early American governance. This clipped signature, while a fragment, still resonates with the legacy of a woman whose influence extended far beyond her formal role. – Loan Courtesy of  Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: Elias Boudinot Letter to Major General Arthur St. Clair, July 9th, 1783

On display is a remarkable letter signed by Elias Boudinot, written during his tenure as the third President of the United States in Congress Assembled. Addressed to Major General Arthur St. Clair, this letter is dated July 9th, 1783, and offers a direct acknowledgment of St. Clair’s crucial role in maintaining order during a turbulent moment in early American history. In the letter, Boudinot reassures St. Clair of Congress’s approval, stating, "You may depend on Congress having been perfectly satisfied with your conduct."

This correspondence highlights a critical episode that occurred just weeks earlier, on June 20th, 1783. On that day, Major General St. Clair took decisive action to disperse a group of 400 armed and mutinous federal soldiers who had surrounded Independence Hall in Philadelphia. The soldiers, disgruntled over delayed pay and unresolved grievances from the Revolutionary War, posed a serious threat to both the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) and the Pennsylvania Supreme Council, which were in separate sessions at the time. St. Clair’s leadership during this crisis not only quelled the immediate danger but also prevented the situation from spiraling into further unrest.

The mutiny underscored the fragile state of the new nation and its government. In response to the incident and the inability of Pennsylvania authorities to provide sufficient protection, the USCA made the consequential decision to relocate the U.S. Seat of Government to Princeton, New Jersey. This move marked a significant moment in early American governance and the establishment of federal authority.

This letter serves as a powerful testament to the challenges faced by the young republic and the pivotal role played by leaders like Boudinot and St. Clair in preserving the stability of the government. – Loan Courtesy of Dan Western and Stanley Klos

Exhibited: Thomas Stone Letter to Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, December 9, 1783

On display is an original letter signed by Thomas Stone, a signer of the Declaration of Independence and a prominent Maryland statesman. Dated December 9, 1783, the letter is addressed to the Honorable Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, a fellow Maryland political leader. Notably, Jenifer has docketed the letter and boldly signed it, further enhancing its historical significance.

In this correspondence, Stone shares his opinions on the debated relocation of the Port Tobacco Court House to Chapel Point. This discussion sheds light on the local governance and logistical concerns of the time, reflecting the challenges faced by leaders in balancing practical considerations with community needs. Such debates were emblematic of the complexities of establishing functional civil infrastructures in the fledgling United States.

This letter serves as a fascinating artifact from a formative period in American history, offering a glimpse into the civic discourse between two influential figures who shaped Maryland’s political landscape. – Loan Courtesy of Michael J. Sullivan of Mt. Victoria.

Exhibited: January 14th, 1784, Proclamation of the Treaty of Paris Ratification

On display is an extraordinarily rare January 14th, 1784 broadside titled, “By the United States in Congress Assembled, A Proclamation.” This historic document announces the ratification of the Treaty of Paris, formally ending the Revolutionary War and confirming the United States as a sovereign nation. Issued by the United States in Congress Assembled while convening in Annapolis, this proclamation symbolizes the culmination of years of struggle and the recognition of American independence on the global stage.

This particular broadside is one of only two known to survive in complete form, bearing the official seal of the United States in Congress Assembled and the signatures of Thomas Mifflin, who signed as “Our President,” and Charles Thomson, Secretary of the Congress. The only other extant copy signed by both Mifflin and Thomson is preserved in the National Archives, making this artifact a uniquely significant piece of early American history.

The proclamation not only marked the ratification of the Treaty of Paris but also served as an official notice to the states, allies, and the wider world that the Revolutionary War had definitively ended. It symbolized the successful establishment of the United States as an independent power and laid the groundwork for its future as a self-governing republic.

This document, with its impeccable provenance and remarkable rarity, offers an unparalleled connection to the foundational moment when the United States secured its place among the nations of the world. – Loan Courtesy of Seth Kaller

Exhibited: An autograph document signed by Sarah Jay, prepared in the hand of Robert Morris (1745 – June 2, 1815) was chief justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey. The document acknowledges a receipt of $750 owed to her husband, John Jay. Accompanying this is a steel engraving of Sarah Livingston Jay, taken from Rufus Wilmot Griswold’s The Republican Court; or American Society in the Days of Washington (1854).

Also featured are the toasts composed for the Ball celebrating the signing of the Definitive Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783. These toasts were included in a letter Sarah Jay sent to her sister, Kitty. Although Sarah Jay, a celebrated figure in French society and a close friend of both the Marquis de Lafayette and his wife, organized an elaborate ball for the occasion, she was unable to attend due to the recent birth of her daughter, Ann, in August.

Steel Engraving of Sarah Livingston Jay from Rufus Wilmot Griswold
The Republican Court; or American Society in the Days of Washington,  1854

Editors Landa M. Freeman, Louise V. North, and Janet M. Wedge of Selected Letters of John Jay and Sarah Livingston Jay (2003) suggest that these toasts were not written by Sarah for John to deliver at the ball but were, instead, those composed by John himself for a celebration on July 4, 1783, when peace was imminent. According to the editors, Sarah transcribed John’s toasts and sent them to her sister. Regardless of authorship, these toasts reflect deep patriotism, profound gratitude to allied nations, and a recognition of both the rewards and sacrifices of liberty hard-earned.

Toasts from the Celebration:

• The United States of America, may they be perpetual.
• The Congress.
• The King & Nation of France.
• General Washington and the American Army.
• The United Netherlands & all other free States in the world.
• His Catholic Majesty & all other Princes & Powers who have manifested Friendship to America.
• The Memory of the Patriots who have fallen for their Country. May kindness be shown to their widows & children.
• The French Officers & Army who served in America.
• Gratitude to our Friends & Moderation to our Enemies.
• May all our Citizens be soldiers, & all our soldiers Citizens.
• Concord, Wisdom & Firmness to all American Councils.
• May our Country be always prepared for War, but disposed to Peace.
• Liberty & Happiness to all Mankind.

This rare collection underscores the values of the era and celebrates the resilience, alliances, and ideals that shaped the United States during its formative years.

Exhibited: April 30, 1784 Broadside on Trade Regulation by the United States in Congress Assembled

On display is a rare broadside of an April 30, 1784 resolution passed by the United States in Congress Assembled (USCA), addressing one of the most critical weaknesses of the government under the Articles of Confederation: the lack of federal authority to regulate trade. Signed by Charles Thomson as USCA Secretary, the resolution urgently requests that the states grant Congress the power to manage foreign commerce for a term of 15 years.

The broadside includes a powerful statement emphasizing the necessity of this authority:

"Unless the United States in Congress...shall be vested with powers competent to the protection of commerce, they can never command reciprocal advantages in trade... Without these, our foreign commerce must decline and eventually be annihilated."

The resolution warns of dire consequences if Congress cannot regulate trade with foreign powers and proposes an explicit solution: to empower Congress to prohibit imports and exports carried by nations lacking reciprocal trade agreements with the United States.

This resolution was a direct response to Britain’s post-war trade policies, which imposed harsh restrictions on American commerce with the West Indies and other markets, severely hindering the fledgling nation’s economic growth. Although Virginia supported the resolution, many states resisted, reflecting the fractured nature of governance under the Articles of Confederation.

The failure to secure uniform trade regulation became a driving force behind the Constitutional Convention three years later. The Constitution of 1787 would resolve this issue by explicitly granting Congress the authority to regulate both foreign and interstate commerce, a foundational shift that strengthened the federal government and enabled the United States to assert its economic independence. – Loan Courtesy of Seth Kaller 

Exhibited: The Western Land Ordinance of 1785

Featured here is an original May 30, 1785, printing of the Western Land Ordinance of 1785 as published in the Pennsylvania Packett and Daily Advertiser, Monday, May 30, 1785. The the ordinance  is dated May 20, 1785, and signed in type by Richard Henry Lee, President of the United States in Congress Assembled, and Charles Thomson, Secretary of the United States in Congress Assembled. This landmark legislation established a systematic approach for surveying, selling, and settling the vast western territories, laying the groundwork for orderly westward expansion under the Articles of Confederation.

The ordinance built upon the 1784 Land Ordinance, providing a detailed mechanism for dividing the western lands into square townships. Each township measured six miles on each side, encompassing 36 square miles of land. These townships were then subdivided into 36 one-square-mile sections, each containing 640 acres. Specific sections were designated for public and veteran use:

• Section 16 was reserved for the establishment of public schools, reflecting the early emphasis on education as a cornerstone of community development.
• Sections 8, 11, 26, and 29 were allocated to veterans of the American Revolution, compensating them for their service and reducing the national war debt.

The remaining sections were sold at public auctions, with a minimum bid of $640 per section or $1 per acre. This process generated much-needed revenue for the federal government and encouraged orderly settlement of the western frontier.

The Western Land Ordinance of 1785 is a pivotal document in American history, representing one of the first federal policies for land management and highlighting the importance of education, veteran compensation, and national debt reduction in the nation’s early governance. – Historic.us Collection

Exhibited: King George III Autograph Letter Signed, September 2, 1786

This framed 27” x 28” autograph letter, signed by King George III and dated September 2, 1786, provides a rare glimpse into the personal life and interests of the British monarch. Addressed to an unnamed friend, the letter discusses several topics, including the design of the Theological Pivre Medal, the health of his daughter Elizabeth, and his friend's horseback riding endeavors.

In the letter, King George III writes:

"My Good Lord, Yesterday I received from Burch his design for the Reverse of the Theological Pivre Medal. I now communicate to you this only Alteration I have proposed: that the Anfs shall not appear so well finished but of ruder workmanship, and the name of the University as well as the year placed at bottom as on the other Medal. We have had some alarm from a spasmatick attack on the breast of Elizabeth, which occasioned some inflammation, but by the skill of Sir George Baker she is now just fully recovered and in a few days will resume riding on horseback, which has certainly this Summer agreed with her. I am sure to find by a letter Mr. Delany has had from Mr. Montagu that you are preparing to do the same as I am certain it will contribute to Your Health, which I flatter myself is improved by your proposing to attempt it this Season. Believe me ever, My Good Lord, Your Most Affectionately, George R. Windsor, Sept 2, 1786."

Historical Context

George III, born in 1738, was the son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. He ascended the throne in 1760 after the death of his grandfather, George II, as his father had predeceased him in 1751. George III married Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz in 1761, with whom he had 15 children.

Known as the monarch during the American Revolutionary War, George III’s policies, including the taxation of American colonies, contributed to the uprising that led to the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Despite the loss at Yorktown in 1781 and the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which formally recognized the United States, George III's reign continued through significant periods of British history. His political influence waned after William Pitt the Younger became Prime Minister in 1783, though George briefly regained power between 1801 and 1804.

The letter reflects his personal side, including his concern for his family’s health and his attention to detail in artistic and scholarly pursuits, such as the design of medals. Tragically, George III’s later life was marred by severe mental illness, now believed to be porphyria, which interrupted his reign as early as 1765 and rendered him incapacitated by 1811. His son, George, the Prince Regent, took over the duties of ruling until George III’s death in 1820 at Windsor Castle. – Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: John Hancock Document Signed 

 Displayed is a two-page manuscript ledger attributed to John Hancock, detailing items purchased (presumably) and their costs from September 15 through December 16, 1786. The entries primarily list tea, sugar, and spices.

Historical Context: At the time this ledger was written, John Hancock was serving as a delegate from Massachusetts to the United States in Congress Assembled. This period marked a hiatus in his tenure as Governor of Massachusetts, a position he resumed in 1787. Notably, Hancock had been elected to a one-year term as President of the United States in Congress Assembled on November 23, 1785. However, citing illness, he did not assume active office. Instead, David Ramsay and Nathaniel Gorham carried out the responsibilities of the presidency as "Chairmen" of the Congress.

Despite his claimed infirmity, this ledger suggests Hancock remained quite active, as the significant volume of goods recorded may indicate renewed engagement in his merchant business during this time. The document provides a unique glimpse into Hancock’s life and activities, offering insight into his ongoing commercial interests even amid political commitments. -- Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: Nathaniel Gorham Autograph Letter Signed

On display is an autograph letter signed by Nathaniel Gorham, addressed to the merchants Messrs. Reynell & Coates of Charlestown, Massachusetts, and dated November 5, 1772. In this correspondence, Gorham, who would later succeed John Hancock as President of the United States in Congress Assembled, discusses a business transaction with his Philadelphia counterparts:

"Capt. Hinkley...wrote you desiring you to ship me 2 tons Barr Iron which I take this opportunity to desire you to alter & in the room of it to send six Tons pig Iron & if you cannot get pig Iron then to send the Barr Iron as afore mentioned."

Gorham, a native of Charlestown, Massachusetts, was deeply involved in the Revolutionary movement from the early 1770s. His political career included service in the Massachusetts legislature from 1771 to 1775, and later in the Continental Congress from 1782-1783 and again from 1785-1787. During his second term in Congress, Gorham was chosen to succeed John Hancock as President. Additionally, he played a significant role in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, serving as assistant president and presiding in George Washington’s absence.

This letter offers a rare glimpse into Gorham's dual roles as a statesman and businessman, illustrating the interplay of commerce and governance during this formative period of American history. -- Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: Northwest Ordinance – 1787 Printing from USCA Journals

This exhibit features a rare 1787 first edition printing of An Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States, North West of the River Ohio, published in the Journal of the United States in Congress Assembled: Containing the Proceedings from the Sixth Day of November, 1786, to the Fifth Day of November, 1787.  Published by Order of Congress by John Dunlap in New York. The Northwest Ordinance, adopted on July 13, 1787, is widely regarded as one of the most significant acts passed under the Articles of Confederation. Crafted primarily by Rufus King and Nathan Dane, this landmark legislation set the framework for governance and settlement of the Northwest Territory, encompassing lands north and west of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi.

U.S. Senator Daniel Webster praised the ordinance, noting its unparalleled and enduring impact:

“I doubt whether one single law of any lawgiver, ancient or modern, has produced the effects of more distinct, marked, and lasting character than the Ordinance of 1787.”

Key Provisions and Significance:

• Territorial Organization: Established that the region would be divided into no fewer than three and no more than five territories, each eligible for statehood on equal footing with the original 13 states.
• Guaranteed Rights: Ensured freedom of religion, trial by jury, public education, and equal civil liberties for inhabitants.
• Slavery Prohibition: Banned slavery and involuntary servitude within the territory, except as punishment for crimes. However, it allowed for the return of escaped enslaved persons to their original states.
• Public Education and Morality: Article III emphasized the importance of “religion, morality, and knowledge” for good governance and the happiness of mankind, mandating the encouragement of schools and education. It also pledged justice and fair treatment for Native American communities.

The ordinance also introduced principles that guided the westward expansion of the United States, culminating in the admission of new states across the continent, including Alaska and Hawaii. Article V, which permitted territories to establish self-government and eventually join the Union as full states, set a precedent for the orderly growth of the nation.

Additional Context:

The Journal of the United States in Congress Assembled also includes other pivotal legislative actions from this transformative era. Among these are resolutions calling for the Constitutional Convention that ultimately produced the Constitution of 1787, a resolution transmitting the finalized Constitution to the states without alterations for ratification, and measures addressing critical economic issues. These include the establishment of a new national currency system, an ordinance for creating the U.S. Mint, and writings by Hugh Williamson. Williamson’s analysis under the pseudonym “Sylvius” tackled pressing topics such as the federal debt, the challenges of paper currency, the necessity for industrial development, and the introduction of excise taxes to stabilize the economy.

This printing of the Journal not only reflects the enduring legacy of the Northwest Ordinance but also highlights the Confederation Congress’s broader legislative priorities. From territorial governance and the expansion of civil liberties to the economic and structural foundation of the United States, these actions collectively illustrate the vital role Congress played in shaping the early republic during a critical period of transition and growth. - Loan Courtesy of the Historic.us Collection

Exhibited: U.S. Constitution Printing in New Haven, CT Newspaper

This exhibit features an exceptionally rare printing of the United States Constitution from The New-Haven Gazette and the Connecticut Magazine, dated September 27, 1787. It is the earliest known complete Connecticut newspaper printing of the Constitution, published just ten days after its adoption by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia.

The document spans the first three pages, with the Preamble prominently displayed in large type on the front page. It is signed in type by George Washington and the 38 delegates to the Convention. Accompanying the Constitution are George Washington’s letter transmitting the text to Congress, the Constitutional Convention’s resolution for ratification, and an editorial advocating its adoption. The issue also includes commentary on the Constitution's reception in Pennsylvania, including a reference to Benjamin Franklin’s famous speech at the Convention.

Though some debate exists about whether this was the first Connecticut newspaper to print the Constitution, it remains a vital artifact of early American history. Published just one day before the Confederation Congress unanimously voted to submit the Constitution to the states for ratification, it illustrates the swift dissemination of this foundational document. Connecticut itself played a key role in shaping the Constitution, proposing the two-house legislative system still in use today. On January 9, 1788, Connecticut became the fifth state to ratify the Constitution, advancing the push toward its adoption.

This edition of The New-Haven Gazette is an exceedingly rare historical treasure, with only one other known copy to have surfaced at auction --- Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: Arthur St. Clair Document Signed 

This rare and historically significant partly printed document, measuring 12" x 7½" and dated October 20, 1787, in New York, is an official military commission issued under the Articles of Confederation. It appoints Jacob Kingsbury as a Lieutenant in the Army of the United States. The document bears the bold signature of "Ar. St. Clair," who served as President of the United States in Congress Assembled, and is countersigned by "H(enry) Knox" as Secretary of War. The piece retains its original United States War Department seal, adding to its remarkable preservation and authenticity.

Arthur St. Clair, a Revolutionary War general and statesman, presided over the Congress during a pivotal time in American history, shortly before the adoption of the United States Constitution. His tenure as President of the Congress marked the nation's transition from the Articles of Confederation to the framework of a stronger federal government. The commission represents not only the duties of Congress in maintaining military structure under the Confederation but also reflects the evolving responsibilities of the early American government.

Jacob Kingsbury, the appointee, went on to have a notable military career, serving in key roles during the nation's early years, including the Northwest Indian Wars and the War of 1812. Documents such as this provide a window into the administration of the fledgling United States and the individuals who helped shape its military and governance. - Loan Courtesy of Rick Badwey, Museum Framing.

Exhibited: Cyrus Griffin Document Signed

Cyrus Griffin oil Painting with Exhibit's Welcome Sign

This military commission, signed by Cyrus Griffin as President of the United States in Congress Assembled, appoints Asa Hartshorn to the rank of Ensign in the newly formed United States Army. Dated October 11, 1788, the document also bears the signature of Henry Knox, who served as the second Secretary of War, succeeding Benjamin Lincoln in 1785.

Cyrus Griffin holds the distinction of being the last President to serve under the Articles of Confederation, presiding over the Congress of the Confederation as it navigated the transition to the United States Constitution. Griffin’s presidency marked the conclusion of the Confederation era, a pivotal time in American history as the nation shifted from a loose alliance of states to a unified federal government. This commission highlights the ongoing responsibilities of Congress during this transitional period, including the establishment of a professional military force, and reflects the leadership of both Griffin and Knox in laying the groundwork for the nation's future governance and defense. -- Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collection.

The Fourth United Republic: United States of America

We the People

Fourth United American Republic: The United States of America (March 4, 1789 – Present)

The Fourth United American Republic was established on March 4, 1789, with the enactment of the United States Constitution of 1787 by 11 states. This enduring republic remains the governing structure of the United States today.

This section showcases a remarkable collection of 18th-century founding-era letters, documents, and manuscripts from key figures, including President George Washington, Vice President John Adams, and cabinet members Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, Henry Knox, and Edmund Randolph. These artifacts provide a unique window into the formative years of the United States, shedding light on pivotal moments in governance, diplomacy, and the creation of the new federal government.

Additionally, this section examines the economic challenges of the 1790s, including the collapse of the real estate market and the North American Land Company “REIT.” It features a poignant letter from Robert Morris, a Founding Father and financier of the Revolution, written from debtor’s prison, highlighting the precarious financial realities of the early republic.

Exhibited: George Washington's First State of the Union Address

This exhibit features a rare Massachusetts Centennial January 16, 1790 [Number 36 Vol. XII], front-page printing of President George Washington’s historic first State of the Union Address, delivered orally to both Houses of Congress on January 8, 1790. This speech, a defining moment in the early republic, marked the inaugural fulfillment of the Constitution's mandate for the president to provide Congress with information on the state of the nation and recommend legislative measures.

In this address, Washington emphasized the importance of national defense, famously stating, “To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of preserving peace.” He also addressed ongoing challenges with Native American tribes on the southern and western frontiers, underscoring the government’s dual responsibility to protect settlers and, if necessary, respond to aggression:

"There was reason to hope, the pacifick measures adopted with regard to certain hostile tribes of Indians, would have relieved the inhabitants of our southern and western frontiers from their depredations. But you will perceive, from the information contained in the papers, which I shall direct to be laid before you, (comprehending a communication from the Commonwealth of Virginia) that we ought to be prepared to afford protection to those parts of the Union; and, if necessary, to punish aggressors.”

This address, delivered orally in New York City, was the last of its kind until the 20th century, as Washington would subsequently submit all future addresses in written form. The decision followed an incident during his inaugural address when Congress, to Washington’s surprise, asked him to leave the chamber while they deliberated over his recommendations. This change established a precedent that lasted until Woodrow Wilson revived the oral delivery of the State of the Union in 1913.

Historical Significance:

Washington’s address set the tone for presidential communications with Congress, emphasizing national unity, defense, and public welfare. His remarks on frontier defense would later be cited by President James Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams in justifying General Andrew Jackson’s military campaign into Spanish Florida to combat Native American tribes that threatened American settlements. This speech not only outlined the nation’s early priorities but also reflected the delicate balancing act of governance in a new and expanding republic.

This artifact is an exceptional piece of American history, capturing the moment when the first president defined a tradition that remains central to U.S. governance today.  -- Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: John Adams Autograph Letter Signed

This poignant letter, dated January 24, 1795, from John Adams to Winthrop Sargent, reflects Adams’ deep concerns about the survival of civilization amidst the turmoil of the French Revolution. Written during a time when revolutionary fervor in France was spreading fear of societal upheaval and anarchy, Adams’ words express his anxieties about the erosion of key pillars of stability: religion, learning, and freedom of expression.

Adams laments the extremism of revolutionary ideologies, noting:

“It would be very consistent with the present professed Principles to destroy every Type and Press as Engines of Aristocracy, and murder every Pen and Ink Man as aiming at superiority. I hope in all Events that Religion and Learning will find an Asylum in America.”

Adams feared that the unbridled revolutionary zeal, which had already led to the violent excesses of the Reign of Terror, could spread and undermine the moral and intellectual foundations of society. His hope that “Religion and Learning” would find refuge in America underscores his belief that the United States must serve as a bastion of stability and order in an era of international chaos.

Historical Context:

At the time of this letter, Adams was serving as Vice President under George Washington. His perspective was shaped not only by the ideological challenges of the French Revolution but also by the young American republic’s precarious position. The United States faced its own internal divisions between Federalists, who championed strong centralized government and stability, and Democratic-Republicans, who were more sympathetic to revolutionary ideals.

Adams’ fears reflect his commitment to preserving the principles of the Enlightenment—tempered by order and morality—that he believed were essential for the survival of any civilized society. This letter also foreshadows the ideological rift that would shape Adams’ presidency and his eventual clash with Thomas Jefferson over the future direction of the nation.

Legacy of the Letter:

This letter not only captures Adams’ intellectual engagement with the philosophical and political currents of his time but also highlights his enduring belief in America as a sanctuary for knowledge and faith. His concern for the preservation of learning and religion as cornerstones of society remains a profound commentary on the challenges of balancing liberty, stability, and progress. -- Loan Courtesy of Seth Kaller

Exhibited: The Bill of Rights

This first edition of The Acts Passed at the First Session of the Congress of the United States of America, reprinted by Hudson and Goodwin in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1791, offers an extraordinary glimpse into the foundational laws of the fledgling United States. The volume is opened to pages 149–150, displaying the full text of the “Bill of Rights,” the first 12 proposed amendments to the Constitution.

Historical Context

The Bill of Rights, adopted to safeguard individual liberties and address the concerns of Anti-Federalists about centralized government power, emerged after vigorous debate in Congress. Following the ratification of the Constitution in 1787, widespread calls for amendments to protect individual rights prompted the House of Representatives to consider over 200 proposed amendments. Through careful deliberation, the number was reduced to 27 and then further refined to 12 articles, which were passed by Congress on September 25, 1789, and sent to the states for ratification.

Ultimately, 10 of these articles were ratified by December 15, 1791, forming what we now know as the Bill of Rights. These first 10 amendments enshrined protections for freedoms of speech, press, and religion; the right to bear arms; protections against unreasonable searches and seizures; the right to a fair trial; and other fundamental liberties.

Notable Features

This 1791 reprinting is a contemporary reflection of the process by which these amendments were debated, proposed, and disseminated to the public. The original 12 articles as presented in this volume include two that were not ratified at the time:

1. A proposed regulation on the size of congressional districts.
2. A prohibition on Congress increasing its own pay during the current session.

While these two were not immediately ratified, the latter proposal became the 27th Amendment in 1992, more than 200 years later.

Legacy of the Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights established a critical framework for American governance, ensuring that the principles of liberty and justice remained central to the Constitution. Its protections have become foundational to American identity and democracy, influencing legal and cultural norms throughout U.S. history.

This edition represents an essential artifact of the nation’s early legislative history, connecting modern readers to the intense debates, compromises, and ideals that shaped the United States’ enduring commitment to individual freedoms.  -- Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: Thomas Jefferson Broadside Signed

This rare Second Congress printing of “An ACT Respecting the Government of the Territories of the United States Northwest and South of the River Ohio” is dated October 24, 1791, and signed by Thomas Jefferson in his capacity as Secretary of State. This historic broadside, issued during the First Session of the Second Congress, reflects the early government’s efforts to administer and legislate for the expanding United States territories.

The Act in Context

This legislation addresses the governance and legal framework for territories both north and south of the Ohio River, reinforcing the provisions established by the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and extending similar governance principles to southern territories. The act stipulates several administrative measures:

1. Printing and Distribution of Laws:

   • Laws enacted by the governors and judges of the territories northwest and southwest of the Ohio River were to be printed under the Secretary of State’s direction.
   • Two hundred copies of these territorial laws, along with ten sets of U.S. laws, were to be distributed among the inhabitants to ensure their awareness and compliance.

2. Repeal and Amendment of Territorial Laws:

   • Governors and judges in the territories were authorized to repeal or amend territorial laws deemed inappropriate.

3. Judicial and Administrative Functions:

   • In the absence of other judges, any single superior court judge was empowered to hold court proceedings.
   • Secretaries of the territories were to perform their official duties under territorial law, and proper seals for public offices were to be provided by the Secretary of State.

4. Disapproval of a Territorial Act:

   • The limitation act passed by the Northwest Territory’s governor and judges on December 28, 1788, was expressly disapproved by Congress.

5. Reimbursement of Judges:

   • Expenses incurred by John Cleves Symmes and George Turner, two judges of the Northwest Territory, for travel and official duties in 1790, were to be reimbursed from the U.S. Treasury.

Historical Significance

This act represents the nascent federal government’s meticulous efforts to establish order, maintain justice, and ensure proper administration in territories poised to become future states. It highlights Congress’s commitment to codifying rights, regulating governance, and balancing oversight between territorial and federal authorities.

Signed by prominent leaders of the time—including Jonathan Trumbull as Speaker of the House, Richard Henry Lee as President pro tempore of the Senate, and President George Washington—this document underscores the collaboration between legislative and executive branches in shaping territorial policies. Thomas Jefferson’s signature as Secretary of State further connects the act to one of the most influential figures of the Founding Era, who played a critical role in organizing and overseeing the expanding Union.

Legacy

This broadside serves as a testament to the United States’ early dedication to managing territorial growth, ensuring legal uniformity, and laying the groundwork for eventual statehood. The meticulous provisions outlined in the act highlight the challenges of governing a vast and diverse nation, while also reflecting the enduring principles of democracy and justice. -- Loan Courtesy of Historic.us Collection.

Exhibited: Robert Morris Autograph Letter Signed

This remarkable autograph letter, signed “Robt Morris” and dated March 9, 1798, was written by Robert Morris, the financier of the American Revolution, during his imprisonment in Philadelphia’s debtor’s prison. Addressed to John Nicholson, his business partner in speculative ventures, the letter sheds light on Morris’s financial troubles and the strained dynamics of his partnerships during a period of personal and professional downfall.

Morris writes:

“The enclosed letters of the 7th from the trustees came hither last night. It appears that they grow sore under your letters and I confess that the reply as to Oden I expected after taking a copy. I suppose you will return this letter with such remarks as may occur.”

Historical Context

Robert Morris, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution, was celebrated for his pivotal role in financing the Revolutionary War. As Superintendent of Finance, he managed the fragile economy of the fledgling United States, often using his personal credit to secure resources for the army. However, in the 1790s, Morris turned to land speculation, partnering with John Nicholson to purchase vast tracts of undeveloped frontier land in hopes of profiting from westward expansion.

Their ventures, marked by overextension and poor management, ultimately collapsed, leaving both men deeply in debt. In 1798, Morris was imprisoned for his debts under the prevailing system, which did not distinguish between willful fraud and the inability to pay. His correspondence from debtor’s prison reflects his ongoing efforts to resolve disputes with trustees, manage his financial affairs, and address the fallout of his failed ventures.

Significance of the Letter

This letter captures a personal and vulnerable moment in the life of one of America’s Founding Fathers. Once hailed as the “Financier of the Revolution,” Morris faced the stark reality of financial ruin. His mention of trustees and disputes over letters reflects the complex web of debt, legal challenges, and strained relationships that defined his final years of active business.

Morris’s plight also underscores the harsh realities of early American financial systems and the legal treatment of debtors. His imprisonment spurred discussions about reforming debtor laws, contributing indirectly to the eventual abolition of debtor’s prisons in the United States.

Legacy

Despite his financial downfall, Robert Morris remains a towering figure in American history. His contributions to the Revolutionary War effort and the establishment of the U.S. financial system are enduring legacies that outweigh the personal hardships of his later years. This letter is a poignant reminder of the human challenges faced by even the most celebrated figures of the Founding Era. - Loan Courtesy of Stanley Klos and Dan Western.

USCA  Fourth Session
Annapolis, Maryland 
December 13, 1783 to August 9, 1784

Copyright 2004 - 2012 ©  Stan Klos 

America's Four Republics: The More or Less United States

Important Events and Key USCA Annapolis Legislation 

• On December 23rd, 1783 the USCA holds a public session accepting George Washington's resignation  as Commander-in-Chief with seven states present.
• On January 14th, 1784 the USCA ratifies the Paris Definitive Treaty of Peace with nine states present. In compliance with the treaty the USCA recommends that the states "provide for the restitution of" confiscated loyalist property.  
• On January 30th, 1784 the USCA grants the necessary Canton ship’s papers to the Empress of China for opening U.S. trade to the Far East.
• On February 3th, 1784 Congress creates a post of undersecretary to revive office for foreign affairs. On March 2nd they elect Henry Remsen under secretary for foreign affairs but deadlock over the appointment of a new US Secretary of Foreign Affairs.
• On March 24th, 1784 Major General Baron Steuben Inspector General resigns and the USCA accepts on April 15, 1784. 
• On April 9th, 1784 King George III accepts the USCA nine state January 14th, 1784 ratification proclamation and ratifies the Definitive Treaty of Peace ending the Revolutionary War.
• On April 23th, 1784 Thomas Jefferson’s Land Ordinance of 1784 is passed as the first step of Northwest Territory settlement under federal jurisdiction.
• May 7th, 1784 the USCA appoints John Jay US Secretary for Foreign Affairs. 
• Committee of States convenes on July 8, 1784 and meets intermittently until August 9, 1784 when it collapses. The chief lesson that comes from  the Committee of the States was that an executive of the plurality was not an effective form of government.  This lesson ultimately resulted in the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 creating a separate executive branch of government  in its tripartite system, the President and Commander-in-Chief of the United States of America.

Delegates Serving in the Annapolis USCA Session

Connecticut

• Roger Sherman  Elected: October 9,1783 Annapolis Attendance: January 13 to June 4,1784
• James Wadsworth Elected: October 9,1783 to Annapolis Attendance: January 13 to June 3,1784 

Delaware

• Gunning Bedford, Jr. , Elected: February 1, 1783,   Annapolis Attendance: March 8-13, 1784.
• Eleazer McComb, Elected: February 1, 1783 Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to January 17, 1784.
• James Tilton, Elected: February 1, 1783 Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to March 13, 1784

Georgia

• John Houstoun  Elected: January 9, 1784  Annapolis Attendance: June 30 to August 13, 1784

Maryland

• Jeremiah Townley Chase, Elected: December 9,1783  Annapolis Attendance: December 15, 1783, to March 8, 1784; March 17 to April 5; April 12 to June 4; June 28 to August 9; August 12-19,1784
• Edward Lloyd, Elected: November 26, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: December 13-27, 1783; January 2 to February 6, 1784.
• James McHenry, Elected: November 26, 1783 Annapolis Attendance: December 13-27, 1783; March 27 to April 29; May 31 to June 3; August 10-11, 1784
• Thomas Stone,  Elected: November 26,1783  Annapolis Attendance:  March 26 to June 3,1784

Massachusetts

• Francis Dana,  Elected:  February 11, 1784 Annapolis Attendance:  May 24 to June 4; June 26 to August 10,1784
• Elbridge Gerry, Elected: June 27, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to June 3, 1784.
• Samuel Osgood, Elected: July 9, 1783,   Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to March 1, 1784.
• George Partridge, Elected: June 28, 1783, Annapolis Attendance:  December 13, 1783, to June 3, 1784.

New Hampshire

• Jonathan Blanchard, Elected: December 26, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: March 1 to June 4; June 26 to August 9, 1784
• Abiel Foster, 12-13-1783   Elected: Elected: February 19, 1783  and December 26, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to June 3, 1784

New Jersey

• John Beatty, Elected: November 6, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: January 13 to June 3,1784 
• Samuel Dick Elected: November 6, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: February 25 to June 4, 1784; July 5 to August 11, 1784.
• John Stevens, Elected: November 6, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: May 20 to June 3, 1784

New York

• Charles DeWitt,  Elected: February 3, 1784,  Annapolis Attendance:  March 27 to June 4, 1784
• Ephraim Paine, Elected: February 3, 1784,  Annapolis Attendance:  March 25 to June 3, 1784

North Carolina

• Benjamin Hawkins, Elected: April 25, 1783   Annapolis Attendance:  December 13-20, 1783
• Hugh Williamson, Elected: April 23, 1783  Annapolis Attendance:  December 13, 1783 to May 13, 1784; May 17 to June 3, 1784
• Richard Dobbs Spaight, Elected: May 11, 1783   Annapolis Attendance:   December 13, 1783 to February 13, 1784; February 23 to May 13; May 17 to June 4; June 30 to August 19, 1784

Pennsylvania

• Edward Hand, Elected: November 12, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: December 24, 1783 to February 5, 1784; March 27 to June 4; June 26 to August 19, 1784.
• Thomas Mifflin, Elected: November 12, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to March 8, 1784; March 15-27; April 1 to June 3, 1784.  He served as President during the Annapolis Session.
• John Montgomery, Elected: November 12, 1783,   Annapolis Attendance: January 22 to March 19; March 25 to April 1; April 13 to June 3, 1784.
• Cadwalader Morris, Elected: November 12, 1783,  Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to January 15, 1784,

Rhode Island

•  William Ellery, Elected: May 7, 1783,  Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to June 4, 1784
• David Howell, Elected: May 5, 1784,   Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783, to June 3, 1784

South Carolina

• Jacob Read, Elected: February 12, 1783,  Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783 to June 4, 1784
• Richard Beresford, Elected: March 15, 1783    Annapolis Attendance:  January - 14 to June 3, 1784

Virginia

• Samuel Hardy, Elected: June 6, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: December 13-21, 1783; February 24 to June 4, 1784; June 26 to August 19, 1784.
• Thomas Jefferson, Elected: June 6, 1783, Annapolis Attendance: December 13, 1783 to April 12, 1784. Thomas Jefferson was elected Chairman of the United States in Congress assembled on March 12, 1784  and elected  Chairman again on March, 30 1784 to preside during Thomas Mifflin’s Absence.
• Arthur Lee, Elected: June 6, 1783   Annapolis Attendance:  December 13, 1783 to April 12, 1784; May 5 to June 3, 1784. 
• John Francis Mercer, Elected: June 6, 1783,  Annapolis Attendance:   March 19 to June 3, 1784 
• James Mercer,  Elected: June 6, 1783; June 22, 1784, Annapolis Attendance:   March 19 to June 3, 1784
• James Monroe, Elected: June 6, 1783  Annapolis Attendance:   December 13, 1783 to April 14, 1784; April 23 to June 3, 1784 

USCA Journals – Fourth Session 1783 - 84

November 3, 1783 (Monday):

• Convenes New Congress; Elects Thomas Mifflin President (Elects Daniel Carroll Chairman in the President's Absence): A new session of Congress is convened, and Thomas Mifflin is elected as its president. In his absence, Daniel Carroll is chosen to serve as chairman.

November 4, 1783 (Tuesday):

• Authorizes Discharge of the Continental Army - "Except 500 Men, with Proper Officers": Congress formally orders the disbandment of the Continental Army, retaining only 500 men to serve as a small standing force. This marks the end of the revolutionary army's active service.
• Adjourns to Annapolis, to Reconvene on the 26th: Congress decides to move to Annapolis, Maryland, and adjourns, planning to reconvene later in the month.

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December 13, 1783 (Saturday):

• Reconvenes at Annapolis: Congress resumes its session at the new location in Annapolis, Maryland, following its adjournment in early November.

December 15, 1783 (Monday):

• Fails to Convene Quorum: For the second time, Congress fails to gather enough members to meet the quorum necessary for conducting official business.

December 16, 1783  (Tuesday):

• Reads Foreign Dispatches: Congress receives and reviews foreign dispatches, likely concerning the state of diplomatic relations and ongoing negotiations with European powers following the end of the war.

December 17 (Wednesday):

• Fails to Convene Quorum: For a second day in a row, Congress is unable to assemble a quorum.

December 22, 1783 (Monday):

• Holds Public Entertainment for General Washington: Congress hosts a public reception for General George Washington, honoring his leadership in the war and preparing for his resignation from military command.

December 23, 1783 (Tuesday):

• Appeals to Unrepresented States to Maintain Congressional Attendance: Frustrated by continued absences, Congress issues a formal appeal to the states to ensure they send delegates to maintain representation.
• Receives Washington and Accepts His Resignation as Commander-in-Chief: In a historic moment, General Washington appears before Congress and formally resigns his commission as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, symbolizing the peaceful transfer of military power to civilian authority.

December 27 (Saturday):

• Receives Report on Capital Location: Congress receives a report concerning the future permanent location of the nation's capital, an issue that had sparked much debate throughout the year.

December 29, 1783 (Monday):

• Fails to Convene Quorum: Congress fails to gather enough members to conduct official business for the remainder of the year.

USCA Journals – United States of America - 1784

January 1784

January 3, 1784 (Saturday):

• Resolves to Receive Francis Dana Regarding His Mission to Russia: Congress agrees to hear Francis Dana, the U.S. envoy to Russia, concerning his diplomatic efforts to secure Russian recognition and establish formal relations.

January 5, 1784 (Monday):

• Rejects Proposal to Nominate Knights to the Polish Order of Divine Providence: Congress votes against the proposal to nominate individuals for a Polish chivalric order, demonstrating its reluctance to engage in European-style aristocratic practices.

January 8, 1784 (Thursday):

• Debates Quaker Petition for Suppression of the Slave Trade: Congress considers the petition submitted by Quakers, who call for the suppression of the transatlantic slave trade, highlighting the emerging abolitionist sentiment in certain states.

January 10, 1784 (Saturday):

• Fails to Convene Quorum: Congress is unable to assemble the required number of delegates to proceed with business, a recurring issue due to low attendance.

January 14, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Ratifies Definitive Treaty of Peace, "Nine States Being Present"; Recommends That the States "Provide for the Restitution of" Confiscated Loyalist Property: Congress officially ratifies the Treaty of Paris, which ends the Revolutionary War, and recommends that the states restore property confiscated from Loyalists during the conflict as a condition of the treaty.

January 15 (Thursday):

• Acquiesces in Public Creditor Demand That Loan Office Certificate Interest Not Be Subject to Depreciation: Congress agrees to a demand from creditors that the interest on loan office certificates should not be subject to depreciation, aiming to protect the value of these wartime securities.

January 17-20, 1784:

• Fails to Convene Quorum: Congress once again fails to gather enough members to meet quorum and conduct official business.

January 21, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Rejects Motion Denying Continental Jurisdiction in Lusannah Admiralty Appeal: Congress rules that it has jurisdiction in the Lusannah case, an admiralty dispute, asserting its authority over maritime matters.

January 22, 1784 (Thursday):

• Halts Plan to Dispose of Military Stores: Congress postpones the sale of remaining military supplies, possibly to ensure these resources were adequately managed in the post-war transition.

January 23, 1784 (Friday):

• Sets Date for Selecting Judges to Determine "the Private Right of Soil" in the Wyoming Valley: A date is set to appoint judges to resolve land ownership disputes in the contested Wyoming Valley between Pennsylvania and Connecticut settlers.

January 26, 1784  (Monday):

• Narrows Half-Pay Eligibility Rules: Congress refines the rules on who is eligible for the half-pay pension promised to Continental Army officers, making the program more selective.

January 27-28, 1784:

• Fails to Convene Quorum: Congress is again unable to convene enough members to meet quorum requirements.

January 30, 1784 (Friday):

• Grants Sea-Letters for The Empress of China Voyage to Canton: Congress issues sea-letters, which are permissions to sail, for The Empress of China, the first American ship to embark on a commercial voyage to China, marking the beginning of U.S. trade with Asia.

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February 3, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Creates Post of Undersecretary to Revive Office for Foreign Affairs: Congress establishes the position of undersecretary to assist in reviving the Office for Foreign Affairs, which had been dormant due to a lack of direction and leadership.

February 4-5, 1784:

• Fails to Convene Quorum.

February 6, 1784 (Friday):

• Issues Brevet Promotions for Departing Foreign Officers: Congress promotes several foreign officers who had served in the Continental Army, giving them brevet (honorary) ranks as they prepare to return to Europe.

February 7-9, 1784:

• Fails to Convene Quorum.

February 10, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Plans General Treaty with Indian Nations of the Northern Department: Congress begins planning a treaty with the Native American tribes in the northern frontier, seeking to stabilize relations and secure U.S. territorial claims.

February 11, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Registers Commissions of Five French Consuls and Five Vice-Consuls: Congress officially registers the commissions of French consuls, formalizing diplomatic and commercial relationships with France at the regional level.

February 12, 1784 (Thursday):

• Fails to Convene Quorum.

February 16-23, 1784:

• Fails to Convene Quorum.

February 24, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Postpones Debate on Garrisoning Frontier Posts Due to Failure of Nine-State Representation: Congress delays discussion on how to manage military garrisons on the western frontier, as it lacks the quorum necessary to make significant decisions.

February 27, 1784 (Friday):

• Commends Marquis de la Rouerie; Deadlocks Over Appointment of a Secretary for Foreign Affairs: Congress praises the service of French officer Armand, Marquis de la Rouerie, but fails to reach consensus on appointing a new secretary for foreign affairs.

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March 1, 1784 (Monday):

• Receives Indiana Company Petition; Accepts Virginia Cession of Western Land Claims; Reads Western Land Ordinance Report: Congress receives a petition from the Indiana Company concerning land claims in the west. Virginia’s cession of its western land claims is accepted, and the report on the western land ordinance is read, marking significant steps toward managing western expansion.

March 2, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Elects Henry Remsen Undersecretary for Foreign Affairs; Deadlocks Over Appointment of a Secretary: Henry Remsen is appointed to assist in managing foreign affairs, but Congress remains divided on who should lead the office.

March 4, 1784 (Thursday):

• Elects Commissioners to Negotiate with the Indians: Congress selects commissioners to represent the United States in upcoming treaty negotiations with Native American tribes, essential for securing peace and territorial boundaries.

March 5, 1784 (Friday):

• Debates Plans for Holding Treaty with the Indians: Congress discusses how to best organize and execute negotiations with Native American tribes in the northern department, reflecting the complexities of post-war diplomacy on the frontier.

March 10, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Fails to Convene Quorum.

March 12, 1784 (Friday):

• Rejects Connecticut Protest Against Half-Pay Plan: Congress dismisses Connecticut’s objection to the half-pay plan for Continental officers, reaffirming its commitment to fulfilling this promise.

March 13, 1784 (Saturday):

• Rejects Delaware Delegate Credentials, Exceeding Three-Year Limitation: Delaware’s delegate is rejected for exceeding the three-year service limit imposed by the Articles of Confederation.

March 16, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Bars Appointment of Aliens to Consular and Other Foreign Posts: Congress establishes a rule that only U.S. citizens can be appointed to consular or other foreign posts, reflecting concerns about loyalty and national identity.

March 19, 1784 (Friday):

• Adopts Instructions for Indian Commissioners: Congress finalizes instructions for the commissioners tasked with negotiating treaties with Native American tribes.

March 22-25, 1784:

• Postpones Debate on Lusannah Admiralty Appeal: Congress continues to delay its decision on this admiralty case due to ongoing challenges in assembling enough delegates for key votes.

March 23, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Rejects Credentials of Massachusetts Delegate Samuel Osgood: Congress refuses to seat Samuel Osgood as a Massachusetts delegate, likely due to procedural or eligibility concerns.

March 26, 1784 (Friday):

• Affirms That in Negotiating Commercial Treaties These United States Be Considered "As One Nation, Upon the Principles of the Federal Constitution": Congress asserts that the United States must be treated as a single entity when negotiating trade agreements, emphasizing national unity in foreign policy.

March 30, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Sets Quotas and Adopts Fiscal Appeal to the States; Rejects Motion Denying Continental Jurisdiction in Lusannah Appeal: Congress sets financial quotas for the states and appeals to them to meet their fiscal obligations. It also rejects the motion to deny jurisdiction over the Lusannah case.

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April 1-2, 1784:

• Debates Report on Negotiating Commercial Treaties: Congress continues its discussions on how to approach international trade negotiations in the aftermath of the war.

April 5, 1784 (Monday):

• Adopts Appeal to the States on Arrears of Interest Payments on the Public Debt: Congress urges the states to address overdue interest payments on the public debt, highlighting the ongoing financial crisis facing the new nation.

April 6, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Reads Report on Maintaining Frontier Garrisons: Congress considers a report on the need to maintain garrisons in the western frontier to protect settlements and enforce territorial claims.

April 8, 1784 (Thursday):

• Instructs Agent of Marine on Sale of Continental Ships: Congress directs the agent of marine to proceed with selling off some of the Continental Navy’s ships, a reflection of the post-war downsizing.

April 12, 1784 (Monday):

• Debates Public Debt: Congress continues to grapple with the issue of public debt and how to address the nation’s financial obligations, a central challenge in the early years of independence.

April 14, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Debates Motion to Adjourn from Annapolis to Various Proposed Sites: With continued dissatisfaction over the location of Congress, delegates discuss moving the national legislature to other cities.

April 16, 1784 (Friday):

• Instructs "Commissioners for Treating with the Indian Nations": Congress provides further instructions to the commissioners tasked with negotiating with Native American tribes, a critical element of frontier policy.

April 19, 1784 (Monday):

• Debates Western Land Ordinance; Deletes Anti-Slavery Paragraph: Congress debates the land ordinance governing the western territories and controversially removes a clause that would have prohibited slavery in the new territories.

April 20-23, 1784:

• Debates Western Land Ordinance of 1784: Further debate ensues over how to manage and distribute western lands, which will become the foundation for future states.

April 24, 1784 (Saturday):

• Receives New York Memorial Concerning the Vermont Dispute: Congress hears a memorial from New York regarding its territorial dispute with the self-proclaimed Republic of Vermont, which seeks recognition as an independent state.

April 26, 1784 (Monday):

• Resolves to Adjourn June 3, to Reconvene at Trenton October 30; Debates Capital's Location: Congress decides to adjourn in early June and reconvene in Trenton, New Jersey, while continuing the debate over where the permanent national capital should be located.

April 27-28, 1784:

• Debates Public Debt: Discussion continues on how to manage the burgeoning public debt, a pressing issue for the survival of the new republic’s creditworthiness.

April 28, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Orders Arrest of Henry Carbery, Leader of Pennsylvania Mutiny: Congress orders the arrest of Henry Carbery, who led a mutiny of Pennsylvania soldiers, signaling its concern about maintaining military discipline.

April 29, 1784 (Thursday):

• Exhorts States to Complete Western Land Cessions: Congress urges the states to finalize the cession of their western land claims, a crucial step for organizing and governing these territories under federal authority.

April 30, 1784 (Friday):

• Requests States to Vest Congress with Power to Regulate Trade "for the Term of Fifteen Years": Congress appeals to the states to grant it the authority to regulate trade for a limited period, seeking to manage commerce more effectively in the early years of the republic.

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May 3, 1784 (Monday):

• Reaffirms Secrecy Rule on Foreign Dispatches; Receives French Announcement on Opening Free Ports to U.S. Trade: Congress emphasizes the need to maintain secrecy in diplomatic communications and receives notice from France about the opening of free ports to American commerce.

May 5, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Debates Retrenchment of the Civil List: Congress discusses reducing the civil list, which includes the salaries of government officials, in an effort to cut expenses and address the financial crisis.

May 7, 1784 (Friday):

• Sets Diplomatic Salaries; Appoints John Jay Secretary for Foreign Affairs: Congress establishes salaries for diplomats and officially appoints John Jay as secretary for foreign affairs, a key position in managing the young nation's foreign relations.

May 11, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Adopts Instructions for Negotiation of Commercial Treaties: Congress provides its diplomats with specific instructions for negotiating trade agreements with foreign nations, prioritizing U.S. economic interests.

May 12, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Resolves to Request Delivery of Frontier Posts to U.S. Troops: Congress formally requests that British forces relinquish control of frontier posts in accordance with the peace treaty.

May 15, 1784 (Saturday):

• Debates Disqualification of Rhode Island Delegates: Congress discusses whether to disqualify Rhode Island’s delegates due to procedural issues, reflecting the ongoing political tensions among the states.

May 17, 1784 (Monday):

• Receives Announcement of French Minister La Luzerne's Intention to Return to France: Congress is informed that the French minister, La Luzerne, will be returning to France, marking a diplomatic transition.

May 18, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Orders Troops for the Protection of Indian Commissioners: Congress authorizes military protection for commissioners tasked with negotiating treaties with Native American tribes.

May 19-24, 1784:

• Debates Disqualification of Rhode Island Delegates: Further debate ensues over the status of Rhode Island’s delegates, with Congress struggling to maintain consistent attendance and representation from all states.

May 21-22, 1784:

• Fails to Convene Quorum.

May 25-27, 1784:

• Debates Garrisoning Frontier Posts: Congress continues its discussion on how to best manage and garrison military posts along the western frontier, vital for protecting settlers and enforcing U.S. territorial claims.

May 28, 1784 (Friday):

• Adopts "Ordinance for Putting the Department of Finance into Commission"; Reads Proposed Land Ordinance and Report on Indian Affairs: Congress establishes a new structure for managing federal finances and reviews important proposals concerning land distribution and Indian relations.

May 29, 1784 (Saturday):

• Appoints Committee of the States "to Sit in the Recess of Congress," and Adopts Resolutions Defining Its Powers and Rules; Offers Reward for Arrest of Chevalier de Longchamps for Assault on the French Consul General, the Marquis de Barbe-Marbois: Congress appoints a Committee of the States to manage government affairs during its recess and offers a reward for the capture of Longchamps, who had assaulted a French official, highlighting diplomatic tensions.

May 31, 1784 (Monday):

• Debates Garrisoning Frontier Posts: Congress continues its debate on the strategic importance of maintaining a military presence in the western frontier.

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June 1, 1784 (Tuesday):

• Resolves to Meet Thrice Daily Until Adjournment: To expedite business before the upcoming adjournment, Congress agrees to hold three daily sessions.

June 2, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Orders Discharge of Continental Troops "Except 25 Privates to Guard the Stores at Fort Pitt, and 55 to Guard the Stores at West Point": Congress orders the demobilization of most of the remaining Continental Army, leaving only small garrisons at Fort Pitt and West Point to safeguard military supplies.

June 3, 1784 (Thursday):

• Instructs Ministers Plenipotentiary Not to Relinquish Navigation of the Mississippi; Authorizes Call of 700 Militiamen to Protect the Northwestern Frontiers; Elects Three Treasury Commissioners; Adjourns "to Meet at Trenton on the 30th Day of October": Congress provides further diplomatic instructions regarding the Mississippi River, authorizes militia to protect the frontier, and appoints commissioners to oversee federal finances. The session is adjourned until October 30 in Trenton.

June 4, 1784 (Friday):

• Convenes Committee of the States: The Committee of the States, tasked with managing affairs during Congress’s recess, convenes to begin its duties.

June 26, 1784 (Saturday):

• Fails to Convene Quorum to July 5: The Committee of the States fails to gather a quorum, stalling business until early July.

 

Chronology of the Committee of the States from July 5 – August 3, 1784

Background: The Committee of the States was a body created by the Continental Congress to manage governmental affairs during the recess of Congress. The committee was to function with a quorum of nine states, but throughout its session in the summer of 1784, it faced significant challenges, including the inability to meet quorum frequently. Below is a chronology of the activities of the committee during this period.

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July 5, 1784 (Monday):

• The Committee of the States Reconvenes: After failing to convene on multiple previous dates in June, the Committee of the States finally assembles. It adopts rules to guide its operations and meets in session. The committee begins its business, which includes managing governmental affairs, overseeing the execution of congressional decisions, and handling financial and military matters.

July 6-20, 1784:

• Sessions Continue Regularly: Over the next two weeks, the Committee of the States holds daily or near-daily sessions. The committee works on a range of issues, including:
• Reviewing the state of federal finances.
• Overseeing the execution of treaties and instructions to diplomats.
• Managing military affairs, including garrisoning frontier posts and ensuring the protection of western settlements.
• Continuing debates on the disposition of federal lands, particularly concerning the western territories ceded by states like Virginia.
• Addressing the ongoing issue of maintaining a standing military force, especially in the context of garrisoning military forts such as West Point and Fort Pitt.
• Discussing the trade relationships with foreign nations, especially in light of the recent peace with Britain and the need to establish new commercial treaties.

July 16, 1784 (Friday):

• Orders Recall of Commissioners Investigating British Embarkations from New York: The committee directs the recall of commissioners who had been overseeing the British evacuation from New York after the Revolutionary War, now that the process was largely complete.

July 23, 1784 (Friday):

• Receives Address from Philadelphia Inviting Congress to Return: The committee receives an official address from the city of Philadelphia, inviting Congress to return to the city after its adjournment to Princeton, NJ. Philadelphia, seeking to restore its status as the national capital, makes the case for hosting the government again.

July 28, 1784 (Wednesday):

• Committee Sends Noncommittal Response to Philadelphia's Invitation: The committee sends a carefully worded response to the Philadelphia address, avoiding a firm commitment on whether Congress or the government will relocate to the city, as the debate over the permanent location of the capital continued to loom large in national politics.

July 29, 1784 (Thursday):

• Ratifies Treaty of Amity and Commerce with Sweden: The committee approves and ratifies a treaty of amity and commerce with Sweden, further solidifying the United States’ diplomatic and trade relationships with European powers.

July 30, 1784 (Friday):

• Directs Superintendent of Finance to Publish Regulations for "Morris Notes": The committee orders the Superintendent of Finance, Robert Morris, to publish official regulations regarding the use of "Morris Notes"—a form of promissory note issued by Morris’s office to help manage the federal government’s chronic shortage of funds. These notes were intended to stabilize the economy and provide liquidity in the face of wartime debt.

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August 1, 1784 (Sunday):

• Committee Rejects Motion to Adjourn to Philadelphia: A motion is brought forward to adjourn the committee’s proceedings to Philadelphia, but it is rejected. Philadelphia's attempt to regain its status as the nation's capital is thus delayed.

August 3, 1784 (Tuesday):

• The Committee Dissolves Amid Controversy: On this day, the Committee of the States effectively dissolves. Having faced mounting challenges, including consistent difficulties in maintaining a quorum, the committee was unable to continue its work effectively. The inability to achieve a quorum regularly crippled its functionality, and by this point, the committee’s sessions came to an end, leaving its intended work unfinished.

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Outcome and Consequences: The failure of the Committee of the States to function effectively exposed significant weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation. Its inability to maintain consistent participation from the states, coupled with its limited powers, underscored the need for a stronger central government—one of the many factors that would eventually lead to the Constitutional Convention in 1787.

November 1, 1784 – Monday – Congress Convenes at Trenton

• Congress was scheduled to reconvene in Trenton, New Jersey. However, only two states were represented, which fell well short of the nine-state quorum required under the Articles of Confederation to officially convene. As a result, Congress could not conduct any legislative business, reflecting the ongoing challenge of securing consistent state participation.

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November 29, 1784 – Monday – Quorum Achieved

• After almost a month of delay, Congress finally achieved a quorum with seven states represented. Although this was still not the full nine-state quorum required for more substantive legislative actions, Congress was now able to officially convene and begin addressing important issues, though significant decisions would still require additional state participation.

Sponsors: The 2012 Continental Congress Festival and America’s Four Founding Republics Exhibit is made possible by the generosity and support of individual benefactors, corporate donors and partners of the Annapolis Continental Congress Society including: Annapolis Forum, Denison Gibbs of Forgotten Founders CT, Historic Inns of Annapolis, Irish Traditions MD, J Frank Mowery & Associates Inc., Museum Framing, Seth Kaller, Inc., Michael J. Sullivan of Mt. Victoria, Dan Western of Western Properties, Louis & Jenna Klos,. and Historic.us Collection.

The Congressional Evolution of the United States of America 

For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here]. 

Continental Congress of the United Colonies Presidents 

Sept. 5, 1774 to July 1, 1776

Peyton Randolph	September 5, 1774	October 22, 1774
Henry Middleton	October 22, 1774	October 26, 1774
Peyton Randolph	May 20, 1775	May 24, 1775
John Hancock	May 25, 1775	July 1, 1776

Commander-in-Chief United Colonies & States of America

George Washington: June 15, 1775 - July 1, 1776

Continental Congress of the United States Presidents 
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781

John Hancock	July 2, 1776	October 29, 1777
Henry Laurens	November 1, 1777	December 9, 1778
John Jay	December 10, 1778	September 28, 1779
Samuel Huntington	September 29, 1779	February 28, 1781

Commander-in-Chief United States of America

George Washington: July 2, 1776 - February 28, 1781

Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789

Samuel Huntington	March 1, 1781	July 6, 1781
Samuel Johnston	July 10, 1781	Declined Office
Thomas McKean	July 10, 1781	November 4, 1781
John Hanson	November 5, 1781	November 3, 1782
Elias Boudinot	November 4, 1782	November 2, 1783
Thomas Mifflin	November 3, 1783	June 3, 1784
Richard Henry Lee	November 30, 1784	November 22, 1785
John Hancock	November 23, 1785	June 5, 1786
Nathaniel Gorham	June 6, 1786	February 1, 1787
Arthur St. Clair	February 2, 1787	January 21, 1788
Cyrus Griffin	January 22, 1788	January 21, 1789

Commander-in-Chief United States of America

George Washington: March 2, 1781 - December 23, 1783

Articles of Confederation Congress
United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions

USCA	Session Dates	USCA Convene Date	President(s)
First	03-01-1781 to 11-04-1781*	03-02-1781	Samuel Huntington &  Thomas McKean
Second	11-05-1781 to 11-03-1782	11-05-1781	John Hanson
Third	11-04-1782 to 11-02-1783	11-04-1782	Elias Boudinot
Fourth	11-03-1783 to 10-31-1784	11-03-1783	Thomas Mifflin
Fifth	11-01-1784 to 11-06-1785	11-29-1784	Richard Henry Lee
Sixth	11-07-1785 to 11-05-1786	11-23-1785	John Hancock &  Nathaniel Gorham
Seventh	11-06-1786 to 11-04-1787	02-02-1787	Arthur St. Clair
Eighth	11-05-1787 to 11-02-1788	01-21-1788	Cyrus Griffin
Ninth	11-03-1788 to 03-03-1789**	None	None

* The Articles of Confederation was ratified by the mandated 13th State on February 2, 1781, and the dated adopted by the Continental Congress to commence the new  United States in Congress Assembled government was March 1, 1781.  The USCA convened under the Articles of Confederation Constitution on March 2, 1781.  

** On September 14, 1788, the Eighth United States in Congress Assembled resolved that March 4th, 1789, would be commencement date of the Constitution of 1787's federal government thus dissolving the USCA on March 3rd, 1789.

Presidents of the United States of America

1789 - Present

POTUS - CLICK HERE

United Colonies and States First Ladies

1774 - Present

FLOTUS - CLICK HERE

Capitals of the United Colonies and States of America

Philadelphia	Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774	City Tavern & Carpenter’s Hall
Philadelphia	May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776	Pennsylvania State House
Baltimore	Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777	Henry Fite’s House
Philadelphia	March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777	Pennsylvania State House
Lancaster	September 27, 1777	Lancaster  Court House
York	Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778	York-town Court House
Philadelphia	July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783	College Hall - PA State House
Princeton	June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783	Prospect House - Nassau Hall
Annapolis	Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784	Maryland, State House
Trenton	Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784	French Arms Tavern
New York City	Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788	New York City Hall
New York City	October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789	Walter Livingston House
New York City	March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790	Federal Hall
Philadelphia	Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800	Congress Hall
Washington DC	November 17,1800 to Present	Two US Capitol Buildings

Chart Comparing Presidential Powers - Click Here

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Edited: Open AI. (2024). ChatGPT [Large language model] - https://chatgpt.com